Fernando de Rojas y la autoria de La Celestina
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La Celestina:
Hay mucho debate en relación a la autoría de La Celestina . generalmente considerada la segunda obra más importante de la literatura española depués del Quijote . En su mayoría se le atribuye a Fernando de Rojas, pero no faltan diversas teorías y opiniones de numerosos críticos al respecto.
¿Quién es Fernando de Rojas?:
Fernando de Rojas nació en la Puebla de Montalbán, hacia 1475. Estudió leyes en Salamanca y se estima que escribió La Celestina a los veintitantos años de edad. En 1507 se trasladó a la Puebla de Talavera. Fue jurista de profesión y hasta llegó a ser alcalde de este pueblo. Él mismo dice que escribió La Celestina durante 15 días de vacaciones. Era muy común es esa época que los juristas tuvieran un gran interés por la literatura clásica y que mantenían bibliotecas muy ricas en manuscritos y libros de letras, ciencias y leyes, según un estudio de Américo Castro sobre los juristas y el humanismo. En efecto, se ha documentado que la biblioteca de Rojas contenía muchos textos literarios importantes, incluyendo obras de Cicerón, Petrarca y Marqués de Santilla.
Por su ascendencia judaica, la vida de Rojas fue marcada por la Inquisición. Se casó con Leonor Álvarez, quien también llevaba sangre hebrea, y tuvieron a cuatro hijos y dos hijas. Cuando su suegro le pidió a Rojas que lo representara en un proceso inquisitorial sobre su estado de converso o cristiano de descendientes judíos, Rojas no pudo representarlo por ser converso. De hecho, según documentos, además de su suegro, varios familiares de Rojas tuvieron que enfrentar la Inquisición, pues era una época difícil para cristianos nuevos, dado que el final de la Reconquista también puso final a la coexistencia de las tres religiones. Rojas murió en 1541 y no se conoce ningún otro libro de su autoría.
La autoría de La Celestina:
La mayoría de los críticos concuerdan en que Rojas escribió al menos una parte de La Celestina . pero el debate sigue con respecto a qué partes. Generalmente sostienen que es el autor de los actos II a XVI de la Comedia original, así como los actos adicionales interpolaodos, y los últimos "argumentos", sin embargo, no se ponen de acuerdo en cuanto a la autoría del primer acto. Rojas dice en "El autor a un su amigo", texto que da inicio a La Celestina . que encontró un manuscrito que contenía el texto del primer acto de la obra y que decidió continuarla, y que no sabe quién es el autor del primer acto, pero sugiere que podría ser o Rodrigo de Cota o Juan de Mena. La historia del "manuscrito encontrado" vuelve a aparecer en El Quijote . pero en la obra cervantina es evidente que es un recurso literario que ficcionaliza la realidad. Es sabido que la autoría compartida o el anonimato es también un recurso para protegerse de la censura y salvaguardar el nombre del autor ante la Inquisición.
Corroborando la historia de Rojas, muchos estudios han revelado que hay ciertas diferencias lingüísticas y estilísticas entre el primer acto y el resto de la obra. Por ejemplo, hay muchos arcaísmo s en el primer acto que no aparecen en los otros. Y ese acto carece de las sentencias y refranes. especialmente los de Petrarca, que abundan en el en la mayoría de la obra. No obstante, algunos críticos, atribuyen estas diferencias no a otro autores, sino a distintas épocas de un mismo autor.
También hay incongruencias de argumento entre el primer acto y los demás. Por ejemplo, el halcón que aparece en el primer acto no vuelve a aparecer. También en este acto Calisto aparece de repente en el huerto de Melibea, pero luego se sabe que no es tan difícil entrar por las altas paredes que lo rodean.
Las diferencias van más allá de las que se hallan entre el primer acto y el resto de la obra. La proliferación de ediciones, cada una con modificaciones, complica el debate aún más. La primera edición de la obra se publicó en 1499. A esta la siguieron otras versiones, incluso una con el título Libro de Calisto y Melibea y de la puta vieja Celestina . En 1502 apareció la Tragicomedia de Calisto y Melibea . con cinco actos adicionales además de varias otras diferencias. Aún hay críticos que sospechan que los cinco actos adicionales fueron una colaboración entre Rojas y varios amigos. También hay partes de la Tragicomedia que añadieron los editores, como por ejemplo el incipit y los argumentos particulares de cada acto, y lo afirma Rojas en el nuevo prólogo. Lo cierto es que La Celestina, con sus múltiples ediciones, sigue siendo un rompecabezas para los que la estudian.
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Artículos relacionados
Himnos cristianos de adoración C-D
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En los himnarios cristianos. los himnos se pueden buscar por orden alfabético o por temas. En esta lista, podrá escuchar himnos de adoración cuyo título empieza con las letras C-D. También encontrará la letra y sabrá quiénes son sus autores, compositores y traductores.
• "Cantad alegres al Señor"
Determinar la autoría de este himno basado en el Salmo 100 no es fácil. Tanto en el Himnario para uso de las iglesias evangélicas (1876) como en el libro Colección de poesías españolas antiguas y modernas, tercera parte no se menciona autor conocido. Sin embargo, en el Himnario evangélico Nueva York 1895, estos versos aparecen con el nombre de Carbajal como autor, por lo que se deduce que se trataría de Tomás José González Carbajal (1753-1834), literato español miembro de la Real Academia Española.
Por otro lado, hay quienes piensan que "Cantad alegres al Señor" no es de la autoría de Gonzáles Carbajal, ya que sus versos no figuran en su mayor obra poética, basada en una versión sobre los Salmos en verso y prosa.
También hay quienes opinan que es una traducción del himno "Ye nations round the earth rejoice" cuya autoría es de Isaac Watts nacido en Inglaterra (1674-1748).
En cuanto a la música. aparentemente su compositor fue el francés Loys Bourgeois(1510-), quien compuso la tonada "Old 100th" (Antiguo 100), con la que solía cantarse el Salmo 100 en Inglaterra.
La tonada "Duke Street" del compositor inglés John Hatton (hacia 1710-1793) también se usa como melodía para este himno.
Cantad alegres al Señor
Mortales todos por doquier,
Servidle siempre con fervor
Obedecedle con placer.
Con gratitud, canción alzad
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ДЗГ МВС України — Оперативно — звiдусiль
У минулі вихідні центральні вулиці Житомира були під прискіпливим поглядом працівників ДАІ. 26.12.2007 року. Наразі актуальною проблемою є забезпечення безпеки дорожнього руху на автошляхах.
http://mvsinfo. gov. ua/reports/2007/12/12-26-2007.html
Новини NEWSru. ua. … в Житомирі перешкодили перейменуванню вулиці…
КПУ і СПУ в Житомирі перешкодили перейменуванню вулиці Котовського на Грушевського. час публікації: 6 листопада 2008 р. 17:49.
Депутати Житомирської міської ради не змогли перейменувати вулицю Котовського в місті на вулицю Грушевського.
Адреса и телефоны житомира
04.01.2009 at 16:01 (Полезные ресурсы )
Гостиницы Житомира, адреса, телефоны, цены / Житомир / Журнал…
Старая губерния, ресторан-отель. Житомирская окружная, поворот на с. Вересы; тел: (0412) 40-93-12.
http://zhzh. info/publ/4-1-0-19
Такси в Житомира
taxi-zhitomir. com. ua — Каталог такси в Житомира, гостиницы, погода и достопримечательности Житомир.
Телефон: 15-62, (067)503-60-62. А вы знаете, что … В Житомире проживает самый высокий человек в мире – рост Леонида Стадника в 2006 году…
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… служба Житомира — найдите людей по фамилии, имени, адресу…
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http://zhitomir. telkniga. com/
Житомир. Телефонный справочник
Телефонный справочник Житомир, телефоны Житомир.
Узнать по номеру телефона адрес и фамилию (организацию) абонента нельзя.
http://zhitomir. telspravka. com/
AVISO
Время работы: пн — птн: 9.00 — 17.00. Почтовый адрес: 10014, г. Житомир, а/я 100, “АВИЗО”
Администратор сети: admin@aviso. ua. Адреса и телефоны
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http://zhitomir. sportclubs. com. ua/
Адреса и телефоны / Житомир Справки. net
• Справки. net / Адреса и телефоны / Житомир (1) Золотые Страницы Украины — Житомир [Рус.] (Добавлен: 24-Jan-2000 Переходов: 5466)
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… о товарах, услугах, телефонах и адресах предприятий Житомира
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http://1552.com. ua/
Адреса и телефоны ГАИ, телефоны доверия. Житомир. Авто МЕТА
Авто МЕТА Законы, Правила дорожного движения, штрафы, административный кодекс (КУоАП, админкодекс), растаможка, правовая…
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http://auto. meta. ua/useful/gai_phone/Zhitomir/
Страховые компании Житомира. Адреса и телефоны всех страховых…
Адреса и телефоны всех страховых компаний в Житомире.
Купить авто житомир
03.10.2008 at 08:20 (Полезные ресурсы )
купить авто Житомир
поиск: по автомобильным сайтам. Всего подержанных авто — 327138, добавлено сегодня — 4094.
http://rstcars. com/oldcars/zhitomir/12.html
Купить авто Житомир. Объявления купить авто Житомир. Продажа…
Купить авто Житомир, продажа авто Житомир, Житомир авто базар, копирование материалов разрешается только с размещением гиперссылки на http://avtoagent. com. ua. Все вопросы с сайтом на.
http://www. autosvit. com. ua/avtobazar_Zhitomir_13_11.html
Покупка автомобилей Житомир АВТО МЕТА Украина
— Украина | Автомобили | Автобазар | Покупка. Картинг.
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http://auto. meta. ua/city/Zhitomir/buy/
Автобазар в Житомире — Продажа автомобилей в Житомире, купить…
Купить авто или продать авто желаемой марки, вы с большой вероятностью можете в крупных региональных центрах приведенных в следующем списке
продажа автомобилей в житомире б у автопродажа в житомире Продажа машин в Житомире автобазар житомир…
http://www. cargid. com. ua/cities/zhitomir
Автопродажа в Житомире, купить авто. Автобазар Житомира
Поиск по авто-продажам. Автопродажа в Житомире, купить авто. Автобазар Житомира.
http://www. bestcars. com. ua/autobazar/zhitomir. html
Продажа авто в Житомире. Обьявления о продаже и покупке… http://bazar. infocar. com. ua/region_5.html
Автобазар. Продажа авто. Продажа и покупка автомобилей на Автобазаре…
Автобазар — продажа авто в Украине. Удобная форма поиска по маркам, моделям и регионам сделает выбор автомобиля на Автобазаре быстрым и легким.
http://avtobazar. ua/
Автобазар Житомир — автопродажа. Продажа авто Житомир: объявления…
Все предложения продажи автомобилей из города Житомир. Экономьте время, легкий поиск, лучший выбор .
уведомлять об изменениях цен. уведомлять о проданных авто. если хотите задать другие параметры рассылки перейдите на.
Карта житомира с номерами домов
20.08.2008 at 09:51 (Полезные ресурсы )
Карта Житомира. ГИМЕНЕЙ — Житомир
-Введите улицу и номер дома, например улица Монтана, 45. Поиск. Свадьба в Житомире.
http://www. gimeney. com. ua/map_gitomir. html
Карта Житомира
Подробная карта Житомира с детализацией до здания, с обозначением номеров домов. Карта состоит из одного файла. Издание 2007 года. Цена: 1,80 у. е.
http://ukrmap. org. ua/Pages/Zhitomir. htm
карта Житомира с улицами
PocketGPS Pro — навигационная система с информацией о пробках в режиме реального времени. включающая в себя подробную карту города и области с номерами домов, названиями улиц, станций метро и другой полезной и важной информацией.
http://gps. kharkov. ua/gps-karta_Zhitomira_s_ulicami-7206.html
Велоклуб Житомира — житомирские велосипедисты — Карта Google
Поиск. Карта Google. Украина, Житомир. с названиями улиц и номерами домов (увеличивайте): Обсудить карту на сайте, выразить пожелания.
http://velo. zhzh. info/index/0-6
Карта Житомира и житомирской области — подробные карты житомирской…
Все предлагаемые карты максимально подробны. На них обозначены автодороги, водоемы, реки, все улицы с номерами домов. Отмечены основные достопримечательности Житомира и Житомирской области, заправки, больницы, пункты питания, почтовые отделения…
http://mapsshop. ru/category_94.html
Продажа домов, дач Житомир, Житомирская Купить дом, дачу
Введите в строку поиска номер телефона, указанный в объявлении, или код объявления. Внимание!
http://mirdomov. ua/offers/search/houses-sale/2021/5
Карта Курска
Карты Житомира Google, карты Житомира Yandex, спутниковые карты Житомира и другие карты Житомира от пользователей.
Подробная карта Курска с улицами и номерами домов.
http://www. karta. zhitomir. ua/ru/kursk/
Автодорожная карта Украины
Отображение контуров домов с номерами, дворовых проездов, а также строений, имеющих номера типа: 12В, 15Г и т. п…
Ваши замечания и предложения по поводу улучшения карт, а также треки новых дорог просьба высылать по адресу dobritskiy@aeroscan. com. ua.
http://www. garmin. com. ua/maps/
гостиницы — Житомир, отели — Житомир, Отели, гостиницы, дома отдыха…
Забронировать номер в этом отеле. Адрес: автомагистраль Киев-Чоп село Олиевка (объездная г. Житомира), тел. (041) 222 98 57. Цены: 294 грн.
Житомир фото
20.08.2008 at 09:15 (Полезные ресурсы )
ФОТО Житомира, фотографии и фотоальбомы — ФОТО Житомир — фото…
Вход. ФОТО Житомир.
Альбомы. Улицы Житомира [169] Архитектура Житомира [112] Памятники Житомира [50] Места отдыха [78]
http://foto. zhzh. info/
Житомир | Новости, события, политика, экономика, статьи, новости города…
Информационный портал города Житомир. Последние новости города и Украины. Интересные факты и новости.
• Главная • Экономика • Происшествия • Политика • Культура • Власть • Слухи • Фото • Репортер • Досуг в Житомире • Объявления.
http://www. zhitomir. info/
Фотографии (фото) Житомира. Красивые виды, достопримечательности…
Фото Житомир которые предлагают многие фотографы, отображают город с различных сторон и по-разному. Ведь каждый, видит его по-своему, кто-то печальным и пасмурным, а может шумным и неспокойным, или солнечным и счастливым.
http://www. nezabarom. ua/businesstrip-ukraine/gitomir/photo/
Идиотека города Житомира (38 фото) » Не смогли пройти мимо » юмор…
Забавный фотоотчет о городе Житомире, правда однобокий, собраны различные приколы и маразмы.
Не смогли пройти мимо > Идиотека города Житомира (38 фото) загрузка…
http://photo. i.ua/user/1486265/102592/
Фотоальбомы — Запрошуємо у Житомир
Зачекайте, будь-ласка… На головнуЗворотній зв’язок Розміщення реклами. Історія міста Житомир.
Шановні гості сайту, якщо Вам відомі якісь цікаві факти з життя міста чи Ви маєте власні фото Житомира і бажаєте поділитися ними з іншими, тоді…
http://www. city. zt. ua/photo
Подробно про беспредел в Житомире (30 фото) » Загоны. ру — самый…
18 июня 2008 | Интересное. 11 июня на Загонах публиковалась новость, про то, как высокопоставленный сотрудник милиции г. Житомира на пешеходном переходе сбил двоих студентов.
http://dir. meta. ua/topics. php? rgn=412&t=196
Фото | Новости Житомира | Последние новости
Самую красивую студентку выбрали в Житомире (ФОТО) вторник, 30.06.2009 17:07. Из пятнадцати участников призовые места заняли представительницы…
среда, 24.06.2009 17:25. Впервые в городе Житомир состоялся общегородской праздник «Выпускник 2009″.
http://www. mobus. com/photo/1025
Zhitomir Фото Житомира, Михайловская, энергобанк | Житомир | Украина…
Фото украины, фотографии Украины: Карпаты, Крым, Черное море, Азовское море.
Газета житомир
14.05.2008 at 08:53 (Полезные ресурсы )
Газеты Житомира и Житомирской области
Новоград-Волынский. Житомирская. Лесин край. Газета. 6 тыс. Житомир. Житомирская. Місто. Газета. 6 тыс. Емельченко. Житомирская. Народна трибуна. Газета. 6 тыс. Бердичев. Житомирская.
http://www. galla. net. ua/pr_zhut. php
Газеты Житомира — адреса и телефоны редакций — Рынки — Бизнес…
Експрес-Афіша. пл. Победы, д. 10, Житомир, Телефон: (0412) 405-885. Житомир і житомиряни — Газета. ул. Яна Гамарника, д. 6-а, Житомир, Телефон: (0412) 418-676. ЖитомирПрод-Сервіс — Газета.
http://biz. zhzh. info/publ/4-1-0-59
Газеты Житомира — Житомир — бизнес портал
Средства массовой информации Житомира и Житомирской области: газеты, журналы, интернет-издания, развлекательные издания, молодежные газеты…
- Газеты Житомира. г. Житомир, вул. Пушкінська, 44, оф. 405 0(412)37-84-64, 0(93)7887-530, 0(67)510-13-33.
http://zt. ua-katalog. info/media/newspapers/
Газеты, газета спорт, пресса, цена, купить в Житомире — Prom. ua
Продажа, поиск, добавление товаров и услуг, цены в Украине, Житомир и Житомирская область.
http://Zhitomir. prom. ua/Gazety
Житомир — Википедия
Саша Чёрный напечатал свой первый фельетон в житомирской газете. В Житомире находятся историко-краеведческий музей, картинная галерея, музей природы, литературно-мемориальный музей В. Г. Короленко и мемориальный дом-музей академика Сергея Королёва…
http://ru. wikipedia. org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80
«Житомир. info» — информационный портал Житомира http://www. zhitomir. info/
Все объявления — -… бесплатных объявлений — Купец Полесья Житомир
Распространяется в г. Житомир и Житомирской области. Размещение рекламы и объявлений по Житомиру и Украине.
Главная Автобазар Житомира Доска объявлений Услуги и цены Архив газеты. Подать объявление.
http://www. kupets. biz/
ДТП | Житомир новости -… Житомира (про Житомир Украина) газета…
Житомир новости города из надежных источников на нашем сайте.
http://www. zhitomir. co. ua/news/dtp/
Бесплатные объявления Житомир, купить Газеты Житомир, продажа…
- На данной странице представлены бесплатные объявления в разделе Газеты, Житомир. Чтобы подобрать объявления по ключевому слову, типу или цене воспользуйтесь формой поиска. Вы также можете очень просто и быстро добавить свое объявление.
Аренда квартир в житомире
24.04.2008 at 20:27 (Полезные ресурсы )
Снять квартиру Житомир. Аренда квартир в Житомире
Сдам в аренду квартиру > Житомир. 2010-09-17 20:14:18. Район: р-н Центр; Общая площадь: 30 м2.
Арендовать квартиру Смотреть объявления о сдаче квартир.
http://www. gitomir. etag. com. ua/c_31-are-1.html
Квартиры в Житомире. Квартиры, дома, участки Житомира. Жилая…
В этом разделе Вы сможете найти информацию о продаже комнат в общежитиях, коммуналках в Житомире. Аренда квартир в Житомире.
http://kvartira. zhitomir. ua/
Аренда квартир Житомир, Житомирская Сниму квартиру
Аренда квартир в Житомире и Житомирской области. Подать объявление в этот раздел.
http://mirkvartir. ua/offers/apartments-rent/1976/5
Аренда квартир, домов Житомир — аренда квартир без посредников…
Аренда квартир, домов — Житомир — Сентябрь 15, 11 ч. и 22 мин. назад. Майдан Соборный - сердце города и самое престижное место в Житомире! Уютная квартира, дом кинотеатр, самый современный дизайн. Все условия для комфортного отдыха…
http://zhitomir. olx. com. ua/cat-363
Недвижимость в Житомире, продажа, покупка аренда квартир, офисов…
Полная информация о недвижимости в Житомире: квартиры и офисы, агентства недвижимости и частные объявления — все на одном портале Neruhomist. ua!
Продажа Покупка Аренда Ищу аренду. Область: Город: Район: Улица: Площадь: от. до: м2 Полная цена
http://neruhomist. ua/master_vybora_obyavlenij/?ireg=6
Житомир — Аренда квартир Житомир. сдам квартиру в Житомире….
Самый большой выбор квартир, комнат, домов в аренду для проживания в Житомире. Звоните 8-063-302-66-00 Вячеслав или 8-067-411-91-61.
http://www. First-Realty. com. ua/rent/flat/r-gitomir. html
Недвижимость Житомира, объявления, цены, квартиры, агентства…
Интересуетесь продажей и арендой квартир и домов в Житомире? Наиболее полную подборку актуальных предложений можно найти в базе нашего сайта. Житомир — областной центр с богатой историей и старейшими культурными традициями.
http://megamakler. com. ua/zhitomir/offers/
… квартиры Житомир посуточно, аренда квартир в Житомире….
Звоните по телефону или присылайте заявку. Всеукраинская сеть сдачи квартир в аренду приглашает к сотрудничеству собственников жилья в Житомире, занимающихся посуточной арендой квартир — условия сотрудничества Житомир.
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I think ‘truths’ are repeated often, and built upon and borrowed from. There are many ounce/pound quotes available (though most seem to compare things other than thought vs. action), some dating much earlier than Emerson/Engels time. Here are more quotes I could find with similar meanings:
“ An ounce of practice is worth more than tons of preaching ” Mahatma Ghandi (1869-1948)
“ An ounce of performance is worth more than a pound of preachment ” Elbert Hubbard (1856-1915)
“ An ounce of wit is worth a pound of argument ” Sydney Smith (1771-1845)
The closest quote related to F. Engels that I could find that reflected the idea in that quote was from correspondence between Marx and Engels, where Marx (not Engels) said " Every step of real movement is more important than a dozen programmes ", (I admittedly got this from someone else’s research, and have not verified the source, as I have not directly read the works of either Marx or Engels. I’ll leave it up to you to pursue this line of research, as I don’t think I’ll pursue the works of Marx or Engels This correspondence was from around 1875 according to the link. http://groups. yahoo. com/group/spopen/message/10188 ).
As for Emerson, the closest I quote in meaning that I could find was this one “ Many men are knowing, many are apprehensive and tenacious, but they do not rush to a decision. But in our flowing affairs a decision must be made, — the best, if you can; but any is better than none. There are twenty ways of going to a point, and one is the shortest; but set out at once on one. A man who has that presence of mind which can bring to him on the instant all he knows, is worth for action a dozen men who know as much, but can only bring it to light slowly. "(Emerson - The Conduct of Life - Power - written somewhere around 1860)
In other words, I don’t know the answer to your question. But they are both were familiar with the concept expressed in the quote, and both of them were capable of having made such a statement. Again, I don’t think it is necessarily a ‘truth’ that originated with either man. And Emerson had something to say on this topic too:
“ Our debt to tradition through reading and conversation is so massive, our protest or private addition so rare and insignificant, -- and this commonly on the ground of other reading or hearing, -- that, in a large sense, one would say there is no pure originality. All minds quote. Old and new make the warp and woof of every moment. There is no thread that is not a twist of these two strands.”
“A great man quotes bravely, and will not draw on his invention when his memory serves him with a word as good. What he quotes, he fills with his own voice and humor, and the whole cyclopaedia of his table-talk is presently believed to be his own .”
(Both from Letters and Social Aims on the topic of Quotation and Originality)
By the way - this isn't a topic I've studied, so my opinion is worth about what this post weighs (nothing). I'm not going to be able to get into a debate about it. But I did want to say thank you for asking the question - I really enjoyed reading some of Emerson's essays today.
THE OLD TESTAMENT
Words spoken at the presenting of the Bible at the British Coronation Service
In this section we will review the nature of the Old Testament, and assess some of the claims made for it by Jews and Christians.
The Old Testament is divided into a number of books, most of them originally written in Hebrew, all of them now considered by Jews to have been inspired by God. Some parts of some books were originally written in Aramaic. some apparently in Syriac or other Middle Eastern languages, but all such texts were rendered into Hebrew. Later these Hebrew scriptures were translated into Greek, Latin and other languages. Some additions to the text were written in Greek and survive only in Greek. The Jews distinguished three kinds of book within the Old Testament: the Torah (Law), Nebim (Prophets) and Ketubim (Writings). They came to be regarded as divinely inspired in this same chronological order: First the Torah . later the Nebim, and later still the Ketubim.
For centuries the Church taught that God had communicated his word through certain Jewish prophets. There was no doubt about who these prophets were or what they had written, no question that the original text had ever been tampered with, and no possibility that errors had been introduced in authorised translations. Not only was the text internally consistent and free from error, but it also contained nothing that was superfluous. Furthermore it was held that the text had been set down in chronological order. Those without learning generally held that the text was to be interpreted literally, but biblical scholars have always used a certain amount of interpretation (they call it exegesis) to help understand the more opaque passages.
Traditionally, Jews believed that the Hebrew text of the Old Testament was the infallible word of God. Orthodox Christians held that the Greek translation called the Septuagint held the same status. For centuries this was the only version used by Christians. The Roman Church later accorded the same status to a fourth century Latin translation (the Vulgate) ; and later still Protestants accorded it to their own translations. Many fundamentalist Christians still believe that the Old Testament is the literal and infallible word of God, but over the last 200 years or so virtually all Christian scholars have abandoned such beliefs.
What would we expect of the Old Testament if it were, as claimed, the word of God? We might reasonably expect that there would be no doubt about what constituted the Old Testament. The books in it, called the canon, should be clearly defined. Furthermore this canon should be unchanged from the earliest days of Christianity. We might even expect some sort of divine confirmation of it. We might also expect that the Bible would be original. We would not for example expect to find stories that have been plagiarised from neighbouring cultures or other religions. If the claims made for the Bible were true, then in view of their importance we might expect that the original manuscripts would have been carefully preserved. Failing this, we might expect that various copies would at least agree with each other. We certainly would not expect to find evidence of tampering and later editing. We might also reasonably expect various books to have been written by the authors to whom they are attributed, and in the historical periods claimed for them. Also, if translations were divinely inspired, as the Greek Septuagint, Latin Vulgate, and English Authorised Version have been claimed to be, then we might expect the same standards of them as of the original text. We would not expect to find evidence of deliberate mistranslation. Also, if the Bible represented the infallible word of God, then it might reasonably be expected to be internally consistent and free from factual errors.
These expectations are not unreasonable. Neither are they merely the expectations of modern rationalists. Christians have made all of these claims and in the past have persecuted people for doubting them.
The Canon of the Old Testament
Of making many books there is no end; and much study is a weariness of the flesh.
Ecclesiastes 12:12
There is no evidence that any divine agency ever issued or confirmed an authorised list of contents for anything like a Bible, or even for an Old Testament. Jewish scholars disagreed with each other about what constituted Holy Scripture. When the Jewish historian Josephus (AD 37-c.100) listed books believed to be of divine origin he counted only four amongst what would now be called the Writings 1. Later Jews (and Christians) would count no fewer than eleven.
By the time of Jesus, the Jews had included some books as scriptural on grounds that are now known to have been flawed. The book of Esther . for example, is a popular romance that does not even mention God. Furthermore, the story in it looks suspiciously like a version of an old Babylonian myth. There was much debate in Jewish circles as to whether Esther should be counted as scripture, and eventually it won hesitating approval, primarily because it justifies the Jewish institution of Purim. However, the book had to be reduced by half to make it acceptable. The Song of Songs . also called Canticles . is an anthology of love poems, whose place in the canon was also disputed. It won approval on the erroneous ground that its author was Solomon, hence its alternative name, the Song of Solomon . Its explicit sex scenes have long caused unease amongst both Jews and Christians, who have traditionally mollified themselves with the belief that it is some sort of allegory. Ecclesiastes found its way into the canon because it was also mistakenly believed to have been written by Solomon. Uncomfortable material was removed: for example 18 psalms had to be dropped from the book of Psalms 3. The book of Daniel found its way in under false pretences, having being written much later than it purports to have been.
The Jews in Jerusalem were stricter than the Greek-speaking Jews of the Diaspora in what they regarded as divinely inspired. Greek-speaking Jews included 1 Esdras . Judith . Tobit (Tobias) and the books of the two Maccabees with the histories, and Wisdom of Solomon . Ecclesiasticus (= Ben Sirach) and Baruch and the Prayer of Manasseh with the poetic and prophetic books, while the Song of the Three Holy Children . Susanna and the Elders . and Bel and the Dragon were appended to the book of Daniel . Arguments about what was and what was not genuine scripture prompted Jewish scholars to consider the question around the end of the first century AD. The first attempt at settling a definitive Jewish canon was reputedly made around AD 90 at the Council of Jamnia, where Jewish scholars discussed the validity of various books. If such a council did ever meet 5. its decisions apparently failed to reach the Jews of the Diaspora, for they continued to accept as scripture works that other scholars had rejected, and indeed they continued to tamper with and supplement what they already had for many years to come.
When early Christians addressed the problem of what to regard as canonical, there was a distinct lack of agreement. No one knows what Jesus would have regarded as canonical. He probably never considered the question, since the question of a canon had not yet arisen. The first Christian known to have assembled a definitive list of Christian writings was Marcion (AD c.85-160), a ship owner and native of Sinope (Sinop in modern Turkey), towards the end of the second century AD. He had a low opinion of Christianity's Jewish origins and omitted the whole of the Old Testament. Stimulated into action by Marcion, the Church Father Irenaeus of Lyons (AD c.130-c.200), Bishop of Lyons, compiled his own canon, which did include a version of the Old Testament.
Books that were held to be non-canonical by Jewish scholars continued to be regarded as canonical by the Jews of the Diaspora, and this dichotomy has echoed throughout Christendom to the present day, since Christian scholars generally accepted the Jews as authorities on their own scriptures. Initially the Church accepted the disputed books, at least partly because the Septuagint included them, and the Septuagint was considered to have been divinely inspired. Nevertheless, particularly unconvincing books, such as Esther . were excluded 6. Leading churchmen were still disputing books like Wisdom and Ecclesiasticus as late as the eighth century 7. and disagreements continued for centuries to come. When Protestants started reconsidering the canon they rejected the disputed books, falling back into line with the Hebrew texts but printing the disputed ones as an appendix. At the Council of Trent in 1545-7 the Roman Church reconsidered its attachment to the Septuagint and decided to reject from the canon 1 Esdras and the Prayer of Manasseh . along with a late addition, 2 Esdras 8. The Eastern Churches reached their own compromise in 1672, accepting some disputed books and rejecting others 9 .
So it is that the principal Churches still disagree about the canon of the Old Testament. Roman Catholic versions of the Bible include seven whole books and several further parts of books that are omitted from Anglican and Protestant versions. The material missing from the Anglican versions (listed in Article 6 of the 39 Articles) is included in the Apocrypha, now generally bound as a separate volume 10. The Apocrypha takes its name from the Greek word apocryphos meaning hidden away . Works hidden away in the Apocrypha were so unlikely that they have given rise to the word apocryphal . meaning fanciful or imaginary. In his German Bible, Martin Luther (1483-1546) excluded 1 and 2 Esdras not only from the canon, but also from the appendix of apocryphal works. To complicate matters further, some books that are not generally considered even apocryphal by modern Churches are considered as fully canonical by ancient Churches. For example, the Ethiopic Church regards 1 Enoch as canonical. Their case is strengthened by the fact that a New Testament author cites 1 Enoch as though it were valid scripture 11
The key point here is not that some biblical works are fanciful but that there is no reliable way of knowing which works possessed God's own authority. Was it the selection of the Jews of Jerusalem or the Jews of the Diaspora? Was it the works chosen by the Eastern Churches or the Western Church, or by the Roman Catholics, the Protestants, or by one of the hundreds of other Christian sects with their own canon? It seems odd that God should have permitted such a lack of clarity and so much disagreement about the contents of his divine revelation. It is also odd that the true word of God is not immediately distinguishable from the work of impostors. No version of the canon was so obviously divine that it could inspire universal agreement. Indeed, Churches typically decide their canons by a majority vote. Furthermore, all the oldest Churches have revised their canons over the centuries. For many people, the implication is that all such canons are not the selections of God at all but of fallible and capricious human beings.
An Original Work?
"…Tear down your house, I say, and build a boat. These are the measurements of the barque as you shall build her: let her beam equal her length, let her deck be roofed over like the vault that covers the abyss; then take up into the boat the seed of all living creatures"
The Epic of Gilgamesh, c.2500 BC (Translation by N. K. Sandars)
If the books of the Old Testament contained God's unique revelation, they might reasonably be expected to be original. If on the other hand they were writings typical of the Middle East between 2,000 and 3,000 years ago, they would be likely to contain material plagiarised from other works and from neighbouring peoples. Which pattern does the Old Testament best fit? Did any biblical stories exist before God revealed them to his chosen people?
The Old Testament is not a single work but a collection of ancient Jewish writings. As a cursory glance shows, it is an amalgamation of laws, genealogies, chronicles (or histories), myths, proverbs, poetry, songs, eroticism, propaganda, prophecy, allegories, morality tales and humorous stories. In the original Hebrew there are numerous folk etymologies, puns and acrostics. However, nearly all of these are lost in translation 13. Any good story or choice morsel circulating in the Middle East could be included in the anthology, subject to amendments where necessary. The Jewish scholars who compiled the books that now comprise the Old Testament borrowed from the songs, folk tales and myths not only of the Jews themselves, but of their neighbours too. This sort of plagiarism was both widespread and acceptable in the Middle East at the time.
To take a well-known example, the story of Noah's ark (Genesis 6-8) closely parallels the story of a flood given in the Epic of Gilgamesh * 0" name="_ednref10"> 14. Gilgamesh is an Assyrian work dating from around 2500 BC, almost 2,000 years before the biblical account was written. The story from Gilgamesh is the more complete version. In fact the biblical account appears to be an amalgamation of two derivative versions of the Gilgamesh story. Odd details are lost in the biblical account: for example where in Gilgamesh a raven, a dove and a swallow are sent to find dry land, in the biblical version only a raven and a dove are sent. Both stories appear to explain rainbows. In the biblical version Jahveh places his bow in the sky as a reminder of his covenant not to cause such a flood again. In the older version the goddess Ishtar dedicates her spectacular necklace with the "jewels of Heaven" made by the sky god. The Jews would certainly have known this epic. It was to be found in many Eastern libraries — fragments have been found in Turkey, Syria, Israel and Egypt* 1" name="_ednref11"> 15. A Babylonian version of the story is also known, again older than the biblical version, and again more complete. There is also a well-known Greek version of the story.
The story of Moses" mother hiding her infant son in a basket of rushes caulked with pitch, and entrusting him to the river, is also adapted from an older Middle Eastern story.
The original river was the Euphrates, the role of Pharaoh's daughter was played by the goddess Ishtar, and the child grew up to be the Mesopotamian king, Sargon of Akkad. In ancient times rivers were thought of as the embodiment of gods, so in the original tale the mother was entrusting her child to a deity, not abandoning him to the elements. The story of Moses, which may be found in Exodus 2:1-10, dates from about 1,000 years after that of Sargon.
Another well-known story from the Old Testament is that of God giving Moses tablets of stone on which were inscribed God's commandments. But long before then the Babylonian Sun god Shamash had handed stone tablets of the law to Hammurabi, a king during the first dynasty of Babylon, around 4,000 years ago. Again there are clear parallels: Hammurabi received his tablets on top of a ziggurat, Moses receives his on top of a mountain 16. The laws given to Hammurabi are sophisticated, exceeding 280 in number. They evidently provided the basis not only for the story of divine laws being inscribed on tablets, but also for some of the later Jewish laws. To take an example, the Code of Hammurabi states that:
If a man shall put out the eye of another, then let his own eye be put out. If a man shall knock out the teeth of another. then let his own teeth be knocked out
The familiar Mosaic Code (Exodus 21:23-24) is more concise:
. thou shalt give life for life, eye for eye, tooth for tooth.
Hammurabi predated Moses by many hundreds of years. God seems to have copied the behaviour of other Middle Eastern gods. For example many divinities practised the art of separating the waters, as God did for Moses and his followers fleeing from Egypt.
Other Old Testament events have clear parallels in classical mythologies. For example the story of the Tower of Babel echoes that of the Giant's staircase to Olympus. Samson slaying the lion echoes Hercules slaying the Nemean lion (and also has an older parallel in the saga of Gilgamesh ). Again, in Genesis (22:1-13) God tests Abraham by telling him to kill his son Isaac and offer him up as a burnt offering. At the last minute God settles for the sacrifice of a ram instead. This is an adaptation of another old Sumerian legend, tailored to demonstrate God's mercy and benevolence. It also has a classical parallel. When Agamemnon was about to sacrifice his daughter Iphigenia, the goddess Diana, struck by compassion, substituted a goat at the last minute.
Many passages occur in more than one book of the Bible 17. a reminder of the fact that the Jews considered these books to be quite distinct works, and an illustration of how freely writers would borrow from other writers. Psalms 14 and 53 are the same, except that a Hebrew editor has substituted one divine name (Elohim) for another (Jahveh). Genesis (19:4-8) contains a story of how Lot offered his virgin daughters to the Sodomites in order to appease them. This was a popular Middle Eastern tale. Indeed it was so popular that it appears again in a slightly different form in the book of Judges (19:22-25). The participants are different but the story is much the same. Apparently, different authors have adapted the same basic story for their own purposes, adding different endings to make different points.
The pagan origin of many Old Testament stories has long been known. Sometimes the scribes who did the borrowing did little to disguise their plagiarism, for example failing to amend the text to its new home. Thus, in the Jerusalem Bible, Proverb 22:20 makes reference to thirty chapters of advice and knowledge . alluding to the Wisdom of Amenemophis . on which, as is confirmed in a footnote, "this whole passage is based". Psalm 104 contains material from the Hymn to the Sun of the Egyptian Pharaoh Akhenaten, dating from around 1340 BC. Other psalms were originally written in honour of Baal 18. Again, biblical texts are so similar to older pagan Canaanite texts that it has been possible to explain certain odd-looking Hebrew passages by referring to the Canaanite versions — they turn out to be either mistranslations or mistranscriptions 19 .
Textual Problems
Yet man is born unto trouble, as the sparks fly upward.
Job 5:7 ( Authorised Version)
It is man who breeds trouble for himself as surely as eagles fly to the height.
Job 5:7 ( Jerusalem Bible)
There is no single original text of the Old Testament, nor is there a single original version of even one book of it. The Jews were remarkably free in early times to edit and re-edit their Hebrew texts. They did not regard their scriptures as a single body, but as separate works. As we have already seen they often copied chunks of one book into another, sometimes changing names and other details to meet the needs of the moment. Impious suggestions were also doctored. For example, it seemed wrong that God should stand before Abraham, so the two swapped places and Abraham now stood before God. There were genuine errors too. A common one was to incorporate marginal notes into the text. Typically, one scholar would add a note giving his explanation of an opaque passage. A later scholar, copying the manuscript, would interpret the note as a correction and copy it as part of the main text 20 .
In later times (after AD 100) Jewish scribes began to take pains to ensure that texts were accurately copied, for example by checking the number of letters and words in the new manuscripts. The texts then settled down to relative uniformity, although they preserved errors and contradictions originating from earlier editing. Until the twentieth century, the oldest known Hebrew manuscript was only about 1,000 years old. When much older texts were rediscovered, it was possible to confirm what had previously been suspected — that numerous passages had been inserted, duplicated, scrambled or omitted.
A further difficulty was that different Jewish sects each tampered with the scriptures to suit their own teachings. For example the Samaritans had their own version, and so did the Essenes. There were also mainstream variants, and it is now generally accepted that the traditional text, known as the Masoretic Text, is "only one late and arbitrary line, surviving from an earlier uncontrolled variety" 21. The texts are only relatively uniform, and surviving manuscripts frequently disagree with each other. The New International Version (NIV) of the Bible gives variant readings in footnotes, showing that Hebrew manuscripts often disagree with each other, and with Greek, Syriac and other texts. Here are extracts from the preface to the NIV explaining how the translators worked:
For the Old Testament the standard Hebrew text, the Masoretic Text as published in the latest editions of Biblia Hebraica, was used throughout. The Dead Sea Scrolls contain material bearing on an earlier stage of the Hebrew text. They were consulted, as were the Samaritan Pentateuch and the ancient scribal traditions relating to textual changes. Sometimes a variant Hebrew reading in the margin of the Masoretic Text was followed instead of the text itself. …The translators also consulted the more important early versions — the Septuagint; Aquila, Symmachus and Theodotion; the Vulgate; the Syriac Peshitta; the Targums; and for the Psalms the Juxta Hebraica of St Jerome (c.340-420). Readings from these versions were occasionally followed where the Masoretic Text seemed doubtful and where accepted principles of textual criticism showed that one or more of these textual witnesses appeared to provide the correct reading.
A recent international committee, considering the text of the Old Testament, identified some 5,000 places where the Hebrew was so puzzling that it might need to be corrected. A few of these are noted in footnotes to modern translations, although different translations handle them in different ways.
Some cases look like simple errors. According to the Masoretic Text corresponding to 1 Samuel 1:24, Sarah took a three-year-old bull to Shiloh, but according to most other manuscripts she took three bulls rather than one. In other cases it appears that the scribes have created rather a mess by deliberate tampering. Take for example the case of the killing of Goliath. Everyone knows that he was killed by David. The Bible says so, at least it does if one reads 1 Samuel 17:49-51. But according to the original text of another passage in 2 Samuel, Elhanan killed him:
And there was again a battle in Gob with the Philistines, where Elhanan the son of Jaare-oregim, a Bethlehemite, slew Goliath the Gittite, the staff of whose spear was like a weaver's beam.
This is not what is printed in the Authorised Version, however. The translators have inserted the words "the brother of" before Goliath's name in 2 Samuel 21:19 so that the Authorised Version reads:
And there was again a battle in Gob with the Philistines, where Elhanan the son of Jaare-oregim, a Bethlehemite, slew the brother of Goliath the Gittite, the staff of whose spear was like a weaver's beam.
The words the brother of are italicised in the Authorised Version because they are interpolations — additions made by the translators. They are absent in more accurate recent translations. So why did Christian scholars manipulate the text in this way? In mitigation they could claim that they were merely bringing it into line with a third version of the story in 1 Chronicles 20:5:
And there was a war again with the Philistines; and Elhanan the son of Jair slew Lahmi the brother of Goliath the Gittite, whose spear staff was like a weaver's beam.
But why then did 2 Samuel and 1 Chronicles contradict each other in the original texts?
What seems to have happened is this: Goliath was killed by Elhanan, and the story, dating from around 950 BC, was recounted in both 1 Chronicles and 2 Samuel. Some 350 years later it was felt that David's reputation needed a boost, so David was made into the hero of the story and this new version was included in 1 Samuel. To cover their tracks the Jewish editors changed the passage in 1 Chronicles by adding the words "Lahmi the brother of". They neglected however to change 2 Samuel in the same way, leaving a contradiction that later English translators obligingly tried to cover up using the same technique. The original interpolators made another gaffe, for they used the new David and Goliath story to explain how David came to meet Saul (1 Samuel 17: 31-32), neglecting to square it with a different story about how they met, which appears in chapter 16. Early manuscripts contain only one of the two stories, further evidence that the contradictions arose through tampering 22 .
The book of Chronicles routinely tidies up earlier historical accounts. For example in an original story the actions of King Asa were slightly flawed:
And Asa did that which was right in the eyes of the Lord…But the high places were not removed. 1 Kings 15:11-14
Asa would have been more impressive if he had removed the (pagan) high places, so in Chronicles we read:
And Asa did that which was good and right in the eyes of the Lord his God: For he took away the altars of the strange gods, and the high places. 2 Chronicles 14:2-3
Jewish history was routinely rewritten to show up a favourite leader in a good light, or to confirm God's attachment to the Jewish people. Sometimes God was introduced into a story to explain key events. A story in 2 Chronicles 18:31-32 is essentially the same as that in 1 Kings 22:32-33, except that the mechanics of Jehoshaphat's escape is different. In the earlier version he simply calls out to those who are about to attack him.
And it came to pass, when the captains of the chariots saw Jehoshaphat, that they said, Surely it is the king of Israel. And they turned aside to fight against him: and Jehoshaphat cried out. And it came to pass, when the captains of the chariots perceived that it was not the king of Israel, that they turned back from pursuing him. 1 Kings 22:32-33
In the improved version he calls out to God, and God is responsible for his delivery.
And it came to pass, when the captains of the chariots saw Jehoshaphat, that they said, It is the king of Israel. Therefore they compassed about him to fight: but Jehoshaphat cried out, and the LORD helped him; and God moved them to depart from him. For it came to pass, that, when the captains of the chariots perceived that it was not the king of Israel, they turned back again from pursuing him. 2 Chronicles 18:31-32
Significantly, the original text is not altered, but added to. The later text (Chronicles) is almost identical except that an additional sentence has been inserted.
A man called Jether has different nationalities according to different manuscripts 23. It appears that it was politically correct for him to become an Israelite, and this was achieved simply by doctoring the text. Did Solomon have a mere 40 stalls for chariot horses, or a much more impressive 4,000 24. and did Jashobeam kill three men on a single occasion, or was it 30 men, or 300, or even 800 men 25. There are numerous such inconsistencies, both between different books, and different manuscripts of the same book 26. Such tampering can be detected only when the editors failed to cover their tracks early enough and well enough. We can never know how many times they covered their tracks successfully.
Like the Jewish scribes who had not always been careful of the truth, neither were Christians. Early Christians tampered with the Septuagint, but this tampering was exposed by comparison with the original Hebrew. Christians then accused Jews of suppressing the truth in their Hebrew versions. But the Jews had largely stopped tampering with their ancient texts by the end of the first century AD and were thus routinely vindicated by the evidence. For example, in the Septuagint, Psalm 96 was amended to include an apparent prophecy about the Lord ruling from the tree (i. e. the cross). The fact that Jewish versions included no such line was explained away by the fact that the perfidious Jews had removed it from the text. In fact it was the Christians who had been responsible for the tampering, a fact easily confirmed by comparing the texts with older copies in both Greek and Hebrew. Christians also inserted a line in Jeremiah to foretell Christ's descent into Hell "The Lord God remembered His dead people of Israel who slept in the earth of the grave, and He went down to them to preach to them His salvation". This fraudulence has been quietly dropped, but the writings of the Church Fathers confirm that they believed it to be genuine and thought that the Jews had tried to suppress it 27. We will come across a number of other attempts by Christians to insert convenient text — often either retrospective prophecies or justifications for novel doctrines.
Authorship, Order and Dating
Having now shown that every book in the Bible, from Genesis to Judges, is without authenticity, I come to the book of Ruth, an idle, bungling story, foolishly told, nobody knows by whom, about a strolling country-girl creeping slyly to bed with her cousin Boaz. Pretty stuff indeed to be called the word of God!
Thomas Paine (1737-1809), The Age of Reason, Part II
Traditionally God was held to have been the author of all books of the Bible, just as Muslims believe Allah to have been the true author of the Koran. In both cases, part of the evidence of divine authorship was the sublime quality of the language used. Many Muslims hold that God must have written the Koran because no human could produce such beautiful prose. Unfortunately its supernatural beauty seems to be discernible only by Muslim speakers of Arabic and remains opaque to other Arabic speakers. The position of the Old Testament is less convincing. Even the most pious Christian scholars found the original text crude and uncouth. St Jerome for example found the language of the prophets "harsh and barbarous". much preferring the quality of writing of pagan authors such as Cicero and Plautus.
Another problem is that of identifying the human authors. Most books of the Old Testament were not written by the people whose names they bear. Many were written and edited over a long period by unknown hands. Traditional ascriptions are known to be unreliable, and textual analysis reveals some books to be the work of more than one writer. The oldest book whose author is known is an apocryphal book called Ecclesiasticus or Ben Sirach . written by the Jewish scholar Jesus ben Sirach at a surprisingly late date (around 200 BC).
The books of the Law were traditionally believed to have been written by Moses, although this has long been discounted by scholars. No one previously seems to have been unduly concerned that Moses sometimes referred to himself in the third person, as in Numbers 12:3, but writing about his own death and burial (Deuteronomy 34:5-7) raised a few questions. A further give-away was the phrase ". before there reigned any king over the children of Israel" (Genesis 36:31). This could only have been written after there had been a king, which was centuries after the time of Moses. Moses was not the only person traditionally identified as a biblical author to write as historical fact about events that occurred after his death. Samuel, in 1 Samuel 25:1 . gives an account of his own death and burial. Again, Joshua (in Joshua 24:31) tells us that ". Israel served the Lord all the days of Joshua, and all the days of the elders that outlived Joshua".
Scholars generally accept that at least four different hands were responsible for the books traditionally attributed to Moses, and that their contributions have been interwoven by a creative editor (a redactor . the scholars call him). The four strands are known as Yahwist . Elohist . Deuteronomic and Priestly . These four strands are often identifiable by characteristics in the writing, such as the name the author used for God. For example the Yahwist author calls God JHVH or YHWH (spoken as "Yahweh") while the Elohist author calls him Elohim. The Deuteronomic introduced changes by the Levites after the fall of the kingdom of Israel and was responsible for a three-volume work that we now know as Deuteronomy, Joshua and Kings. The Priestly author edited these traditions together after the Babylonian Exile. The four traditions are often denoted by the letters J, E, D and P, though J and E were edited together before the others and so are often denoted together as JE. The P strand includes the books of Numbers and Leviticus and also forms the framework into which the earlier books were fitted after the Exile.
Other works are also joint efforts edited together by one or more redactors. The book of Isaiah for example is now generally acknowledged to have been written by three authors, known to scholars for convenience as Isaiah 1, Isaiah 2 and Isaiah 3. Isaiah 2 appears to have been an exponent of the retrospective prophecy. He predicted the coming of Cyrus the Great in the 530s BC after the event, and had his work incorporated into that of Isaiah 1, which dated from 200 years earlier.
Another retrospective prophet is responsible for Zechariah's astonishing prescience, and yet another one for Jeremiah's. Jeremiah's interpolator was caught out by an ancient Greek translation of the original text. Comparing it to the later Hebrew text showed that the Hebrew version had been supplemented by retrospective prophecies 28. Again, some works are specifically identified as being written by Solomon or David, or other kings or their sons, but these ascriptions are now discounted. As the Jerusalem Bible confirms, the Song of Songs was not written by Solomon but by an unknown author after the Exile, and Ecclesiastes not by a son of David, as it claims, but by an unknown author (possibly a number of unknown authors), again after the Exile.
The Jews took many centuries to agree a body of scripture. Such a body had crystallised by the time of Rabbi Akiva a few generations after the time of Jesus. As we have already seen, the Jews distinguished three kinds of book:
The Torah . which comprises the first five books of the Bible, i. e. Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy. The word Torah translates as Teaching . but these books are generally known in English as the Law . The Jews regarded them as being on a higher level than the other books.
The Nebim (English Prophets ), which comprise Joshua, Judges, 1 and 2 Samuel, 1 and 2 Kings, Isaiah, Jeremiah and Ezekiel along with the 12 minor prophets. In the New Testament reference is sometimes made to "the Law and Prophets", meaning the Torah and the Nebim .
The Ketubim (or Writings ), the remaining books, which have a lower status than the Law and the Prophets.
These categories were ignored by Christians, who came to regard all of the works as equally inspired. In the Christians" Old Testament, the books appear in a different order, with the prophets placed last, so that the final book, Malachi, appears to lead into the New Testament.
Traditionally the order of the books was believed to reflect the chronological order of the events described. Many old versions of the Bible included a chronology, often in a margin parallel to the text, which was regarded as being as free from error as the text itself. However much it was refined, the chronology was flawed by numerous absurdities and contradictions, as demonstrated by the freethinker Thomas Paine (1737-1809) in his book The Age of Reason 29. At the time Paine was accused of blasphemy, as much for querying the chronology as for questioning other aspects of the Bible. No reputable Church now tries to sustain a full traditional biblical chronology.
Perhaps the most infamous case of misdating and misrepresentation is the book of Daniel. It is a hotchpotch of stories, some in Aramaic, some in Hebrew; some (retrospectively) describing visions, some incorporating known Babylonian tales; some regarded as canonical, some apocryphal. It purports to have been written during the Babylonian Exile, but scholars now accept that it was written about 400 years later, between 167 and 164 BC, at least partly in Aramaic. It is propaganda compiled to encourage resistance to the Greek ruler Antiochus Epiphanes, who was then trying to crush the Jewish religion. It tells how Daniel and his associates refused to compromise on matters of faith during the Babylonian Exile, but displays ignorance of the period, and of the Persian succession, and uses Macedonian words that were unknown at the time it was supposedly written.
The most recent Old Testament writings date from around AD 120 — almost a century after Jesus lived, which suggests that God continued to refine his old Covenant with the Jews long after he had superseded it with his new one. Divine authorship is also compromised by the parochialism of the text. Whoever wrote the books of the Old Testament knew about nomadic life and tribal warfare in Middle Eastern deserts, but little else. For example locusts are covered exceptionally well, but penguins are badly underrepresented.
Evidence of Tampering
…it is, I believe, impossible to find in any story upon record so many and such glaring absurdities, contradictions and falsehoods as are in these books.
Thomas Paine, The Age of Reason, Part II
For many centuries the mainstream Churches denied that there was any evidence of tampering in God's divine word, but this position is no longer tenable, and no mainstream Church now seeks to deny it. For example the introduction to the Pentateuch in the Jerusalem Bible concludes with the statement that "Throughout, the hands of the Deuteronomic and Priestly editors are often to be observed, annotating and adapting".
Sometimes the text has been tampered with in an effort to make sense of it. For example, in 2 Samuel 24:10 David regretted having carried out a census, saying he had "sinned greatly", even though God had told him to do so. Some 200 years later the story was revised so that it was Satan who instigated the census, but the revisers neglected to revise the original. So it is that a duplicate of the same story appears at 1 Chronicles 21:1, except Satan replaces God.
Sometimes, the disruption of regular patterns betrays the fact that changes have been made either deliberately or accidentally. For example acrostic poems have been broken up, presumably by people who failed to realise that the text formed an acrostic. Psalms 9 and 10 are really a single poem, each verse starting with a Hebrew letter in alphabetical order, but as a note in the Jerusalem Bible puts it "in the present text there are several letters without their strophes". Again, in Psalm 145 one of the verses ("Nun") is missing from the Hebrew text and has had to be supplied from Greek texts (see the Jerusalem Bible Psalm 145, note a ).
Another give-away arises from taking a passage and inserting it elsewhere without checking the context. Thus for example 2 Samuel 23:9 says that the Philistines were gathered "there" but gives no indication of where "there" was. Presumably the passage was picked up from another part of the text where the location of the action had already been established. A parallel passage at 1 Chronicles 11:13 identifies the place as Pas Dammim, and this is frequently substituted in translations of 2 Samuel to cover up the error. Again whoever inserted the text saying that God spoke to Moses "face to face, as a man speaketh unto his friend" (Exodus 33:11) apparently failed to check that this was consistent with the main narrative, which at verse 20 has God saying to Moses "Thou canst not see my face".
If the same fact was stated several times, then a scribe who wanted to tamper with it had to be sure that he changed every incidence. This was often difficult. In the Dead Sea Scrolls and the Septuagint, Jacob is credited with having 75 descendants when his family came to Egypt; this is also the number quoted by Acts 7:14. But the Masoretic Text gives the number as 70, and this is the figure that appears in biblical versions of Genesis and Exodus 30 .
The Ten Commandments provides a series of examples of the dangers of tampering. The first problem is that there are two versions of the Commandments, at Exodus 20:1-17 and Deuteronomy 5:6-21. The two versions contradict each other by giving different reasons for observing the Sabbath 31. As a note to the Jerusalem Bible says at Exodus 20: "This is the Priestly version of the Ten Commandments; another version, the Deuteronomic, is found in Deuteronomy 5, and it is the second which has been adopted by the Church". But this is only the start, because neither of these versions is the original. The original Ten Commandments, inscribed by Moses at God's dictation, bear little resemblance to either of them, being concerned mainly with religious festivals and taboos (Exodus 34:14-26). It is this list that is explicitly identified in the text as the "Ten Commandments" and is stated to have been written on the tablets that Moses brought down from mount Sinai (Exodus 34:27-29). But there is yet another problem, because there are more than ten commandments listed here, which means that this list has been tampered with as well 32 — quite apart from the fact that the whole collection was overtaken by the current Ten Commandments. Furthermore other sets of laws are listed that contradict each other in many details 33 .
Footnotes in the Jerusalem Bible demonstrate all sorts of errors and sometimes how they arose:
"…not always consistent" Numbers 22b
"Not an accurate figure" 1 Kings 20b
"The chronological details cannot be harmonised. " Esther 1c
"…a “modernisation” by a later hand." Zechariah 6c
"Different sources have been conflated" Genesis 21b
"…later elaboration. " Genesis 32a
"Two narratives are conflated here. " Joshua 6a
"…contains several traditions put together by an editor;. " Judges 21a
"Editorial comment" Exodus 15a
Two versions of the institution of the monarchy, a key episode in the history of Israel, are to be found alternating in the five chapters from 1 Samuel 8. One is by an anti-royalist author and the other by a royalist 34 .
Another area particularly subject to both mistakes and deliberate tampering was provided by the numerous genealogies contained in the Old Testament. The New International Version (NIV) identifies dozens of inconsistencies in footnotes, sometimes several in the same genealogy 35. As an explanation of why two genealogies differ, the Jerusalem Bible (see 1 Chronicles 2 note b) points out that "Genealogies were often deduced from relationships between clans. This reconstruction of the descendants of Caleb may differ from the list in vv.18-24 because it was made at a date when alliances between clans were different."
Errors of Translation
Will the unicorn be willing to serve thee, or abide by thy crib? Job 39:9
Ancient Middle Eastern alphabets contained no vowels. In the earliest biblical texts only the consonants were written down, without punctuation. This provided plenty of scope for misunderstandings, especially as the tense had to be guessed from the context. In many cases the wrong vowels were later inserted, giving the wrong word and the wrong meaning. Again, since there was no equivalent to our quotation marks it is often difficult to identify the end of a speech. There were no gaps between words, and all letters were capitals, so it was sometimes difficult even to tell where one word ended and the next began. Furthermore the Jews did not use separate symbols for numbers, but like the Greeks and the Romans, used letters instead, a practice that opened up further possibilities for confusion. Furthermore, Hebrew writers often swapped back and forth between first, second and third person personal pronouns, and even when they did not it is not always clear which pronoun referred to which noun. Most translations iron out such ambiguities without comment.
We have seen that the original biblical texts contained errors of various sorts, but further errors have been introduced by translators. Sometimes these errors are deliberate interpolations by translators, performed to tidy up inconvenient or inconsistent passages. In other cases they are genuine mistakes. The following examples include both types.
Translations of the books of the Old Testament were made during the third and second centuries BC, probably for the library at Alexandria. The translations were made into the common Mediterranean language of the time, which was Greek. This collection is called the Septuagint . which in Latin means seventy, because of a tradition that it was translated by seventy scholars, all of whom were inspired and who independently produced identical translations 36. The name is sometimes abbreviated as LXX, the Roman numerals for seventy.
In the first century, the New Testament did not exist and authority was believed to reside in the Septuagint and in Jesus" sayings, which circulated orally. At one time both Jews and Christians regarded the Septuagint as divinely inspired, but in the course of time many errors were revealed, and the Jews adopted better translations. The Eastern Church retained its attachment to the Septuagint, while the Western Church adopted a Latin translation instead. The Septuagint was then virtually abandoned within Western Europe. For many centuries the Greek version was regarded there as no more than the book belonging to schismatic Eastern Churches.
The Hebrew and Greek texts differed in many ways, even before Christians started interpolating their own text 37. In the original text the book of Esther is simply a nationalistic Jewish tract. Christians were not comfortable with the fact that it made no mention of God. Translators therefore inserted references to God into their versions of the Septuagint. From there the additions were transferred to other early translations.
Other additions are more difficult to discover, but are sometimes given away by linguistic features. For example, the story of Susanna and the Elders does not exist in the ancient Hebrew texts, only in the Greek. Had Hebrew editors suppressed it, as Christians claimed? Or had Greek editors added it, as the Jews claimed? As Julius Africanus noted as early as the third century AD, a principal feature of the story is a pun that works only in Greek, and the story must therefore be an addition to the original Semitic text.
Illustration of the story of Susanna and the Elders, a prurient story poular among painters
(The Elders threaten Susanna with death if she does not consent to have sex with them)
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