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by Wendy
Boy do we have some SUPER exciting news.
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When & Where: Friday & Saturday, November 7-8, 2014 at the South Towne Expo Center in Sandy, Utah
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TITLE OF CLASS: 10 Easy Ways to Rock Your Marriage AFTER The Honeymoon
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Penn State sanctions: $60M, bowl ban
Crippling Penalties For Penn State
Jesse Palmer discusses the sanctions handed down to Penn State and the difficult road ahead for coach Bill O'Brien.
The NCAA has hit Penn State with a $60 million sanction, a four-year football postseason ban and a vacation of all wins dating to 1998, the organization said Monday morning. The career record of Joe Paterno will reflect these vacated records, the NCAA said.
Penn State also must reduce 10 initial and 20 total scholarships each year for a four-year period.
More on NCAA sanctions
Penn State created a new class of misconduct during its handling of the Jerry Sandusky scandal. The NCAA responded to its deceit, inaction and arrogance with a new class of punishment, writes Gene Wojciechowski. Story
On one of the darkest days in Penn State history, the devastating sanctions levied against the Nittany Lions were met with mostly silence, writes Mark Schlabach. Story
Mark Emmert and the NCAA chancellors and presidents dealt with an unprecedented situation with unprecedented speed. Let's hope that their impatience doesn't get in the way of their intentions, writes Ivan Maisel. Story
The financial penalties are huge. But the scholarship reductions Penn State is facing could cripple its football program for years to come, writes Adam Rittenberg. Story
The NCAA revealed the sanctions as NCAA president Mark Emmert and Ed Ray, the chairman of the NCAA Executive Committee and Oregon State's president, spoke at a news conference in Indianapolis at the organization's headquarters.
"In the Penn State case, the results were perverse and unconscionable. No price the NCAA can levy will repair the grievous damage inflicted by Jerry Sandusky on his victims," Emmert said, referring to the former Penn State defensive coordinator convicted of 45 counts of child sex abuse last month.
The NCAA said the $60 million was equivalent to the average annual revenue of the football program. The NCAA ordered Penn State to pay the penalty funds into an endowment for "external programs preventing child sexual abuse or assisting victims and may not be used to fund such programs at the university."
"We had our backs to the wall on this," Penn State president Rodney Erickson told the Centre Daily Times of Pennsylvania in an interview later Monday, saying the school accepted the penalties to avoid the so-called "death penalty" that could have resulted in the suspension of the football program for at least one year. "We did what we thought was necessary to save the program."
In response to Erickson's comments, Ray, speaking to ESPN. com's Adam Rittenberg, said the NCAA did not threaten Penn State with the death penalty, and that the sanctions issued were unanimously agreed upon by the NCAA Executive Committee.
"It was a unanimous act," Ray said earlier during the news conference. "We needed to act."
In interview with ESPN's John Barr, Erickson reiterated his fear of the death penalty, not handed down since SMU was forced to drop football in 1987 because of extra benefits violations. The school decided not to play the next season, either, as it tried to regroup.
"The alternative was really far worse," Erickson said in the interview with ESPN. "The [death sentence] was a possibility. Various numbers were tossed around, four being the highest. The [death sentence] is traumatic for everyone. It's traumatic for the student-athletes involved. It's traumatic for the university. It's traumatic for the university, particularly smaller ones, kind of like we are here in central Pennsylvania."
"That's simply the answer," Erickson said. "I thought it was better to go down this path than face a multiple-year death penalty."
With the wins from 1998-2011 vacated, Paterno moves from 409 wins to 298, dropping him from first to 12th on the winningest NCAA football coach list. Penn State also will have six bowl wins and two conference championships erased.
The Penn State athletic program also will be put on a five-year probation and must work with an athletic-integrity monitor of NCAA's choosing. Any current or incoming football players are free to immediately transfer and compete at another school.
"There is incredible interest in what will happen to Penn State football," Ray said at the news conference. "But the fundamental chapter of this horrific story should focus on the innocent children and the powerful people who let them down."
The Big Ten fully supports the NCAA's actions, saying in a news release it is condemning and censuring the school for "egregiously" failing on "many levels -- morally, ethically and potentially criminally."
NCAA Sanctions Against Penn State
• $60 million fine
• Vacating of wins from 1998-2011 (112 wins)*
• Four-year postseason ban
• Four-year scholarship reduction (10 initial; 20 total)
• Players may transfer and play immediately at other schools
• Athletic department on probation for five years
* Joe Paterno record now 298-136-3; fifth on FBS all-time list
More:
The conference also will place the university on a five-year probation to run concurrently with the NCAA's and has declared the football program ineligible for the Big Ten championship game for the four years in which the NCAA banned the Nittany Lions from postseason play.
Penn State's proceeds from Big Ten bowl revenues from the four years, amounting to an estimated $13 million, will be allocated "to established charitable organizations in Big Ten communities dedicated to the protection of children," the conference said.
Penn State, in a statement released less than an hour after the NCAA sanctions were revealed, said it will accept them and that the "ruling holds the university accountable for the failure of those in power to protect children and insists that all areas of the university community are held to the same high standards of honesty and integrity."
"The tragedy of child sexual abuse that occurred at our university altered the lives of innocent children," Erickson said in the news release. "Today, as every day, our thoughts and prayers continue to be with the victims of Mr. Sandusky and all other victims of child abuse."
Adam Taliaferro, a former player for Paterno who has since recovered from a spinal cord injury he suffered in a 2000 game, expressed frustration in a post on Twitter.
"NCAA says games didn't exist," tweeted Taliaferro, who was elected to Penn State's board of directors in May. "I got the metal plate in my neck to prove it did..I almost died playing 4 PSU..punishment or healing. #WeAre."
The penalties came a day after Penn State removed its Paterno statue outside Beaver Stadium, a decision that came 10 days after a scathing report by former FBI director Louis J. Freeh found that Paterno, with three other top Penn State administrators, had concealed allegations of child sexual abuse made against Sandusky.
SN Voices: Penn State Sanctions
Did the NCAA go too far in punishing Penn State? Did it not go far enough? Was it justified in giving out punishment? Vote
The Freeh report concluded their motive was to shield the university and its football program from negative publicity.
"Today we receive a very harsh penalty from the NCAA and as head coach of the Nittany Lions football program, I will do everything in my power to not only comply, but help guide the university forward to become a national leader in ethics, compliance and operational excellence," Penn State football coach Bill O'Brien said in the statement. "I knew when I accepted the position that there would be tough times ahead. But I am committed for the long term to Penn State and our student athletes."
By vacating 112 Penn State victories from 1998-2011, the sanctions cost Paterno 111 wins. Penn State finished last season 1-3 with Tom Bradley as coach after Paterno was fired in November, days after Sandusky was charged.
Former Florida State coach Bobby Bowden will now hold the top spot in the NCAA record book with 377 major-college wins. Paterno will be credited with 298 wins. Vacated wins are not the same as forfeits -- they don't count as losses or wins for either school.
"I didn't want it to happen like this," Bowden told The Associated Press. "Wish I could have earned it, but that's the way it is."
The late Grambling State coach Eddie Robinson has the overall NCAA Division I record with 408 wins.
The Paterno family released a statement Monday afternoon.
What did Penn State sign?
When Penn State president Rodney Erickson signed the consent decree imposed by the NCAA, he and the school agreed not only to the punishments but also to the monitoring, the supervision and to an enforcement process. This is not just a settlement contract. It is the document that governs enforcement and provides for penalties if Penn State screws up.
These agreements are typically negotiated by two organizations in the middle of a dispute. There is no indication of a negotiation or even a minimal role by Penn State or its president and his lawyers. A typical decree would say that Penn State neither admits nor denies wrongdoing. This decree is all about wrongdoing with Penn State admitting everything.
Consent decrees are ordinarily sterile legal documents, but this one expresses outrage. The decree states the evidence against Penn State "presents an unprecedented failure of institutional integrity leading to a culture in which a football program was held in higher esteem than the values of the institution, the values of the NCAA, the values of higher education, and, most disturbingly, the values of human decency."
Penn State did not negotiate this document. Penn State surrendered to the terms of this document.
It is possible for a wealthy alumnus, a season-ticket holder, a coach, a taxpayer or even a student-athlete to file a lawsuit challenging the sanctions and the consent decree. But any lawsuits are doomed to failure. Erickson's signature on the consent decree means that the university has agreed to the sanctions and to be bound by them for five years.
No one has the standing or the authority to challenge what Erickson and the university have agreed to do. Penn State expressly agrees that it cannot be challenged with "judicial process." Anyone who files a lawsuit would face not only an early dismissal of the case but also the payment of the legal fees incurred by the NCAA and Penn State as they obtain the dismissal. The lawsuit would be an expensive failure.
"The sanctions announced by the NCAA today defame the legacy and contributions of a great coach and educator without any input from our family or those who knew him best," the statement said. "That the president, the athletic director and the board of trustees accepted this unprecedented action by the NCAA without requiring a full due process hearing before the Committee on Infractions is an abdication of their responsibilities."
The scholarship reductions mean that Penn State's roster will be capped at 65 scholarship players within a couple of seasons. The normal scholarship limit for major college football programs is 85. Playing with 20 fewer is crippling to a program that tries to compete at the highest level of the sport.
The NCAA is considering waiving scholarship limits for programs to which Penn State players transfer, provided they reduce proportionately in the next year. For example, the limit is 25 new scholarships per year to a total of 85 scholarships. If the limits are waived in 2012-13 to accommodate one Penn State student-athlete who wishes to transfer to a particular school already at the limits, in 2013-14 the school will be limited to 24 new scholarships and 84 total scholarships.
The NCAA took unprecedented measures with the decision to penalize Penn State without the due process of a Committee on Infractions hearing, bypassing a system in which it conducts its own investigations, issues a notice of allegations and then allows the university 90 days to respond before a hearing is scheduled.
After the hearing, the Infractions Committee then usually takes a minimum of six weeks, but it can take upward of a year to issue its findings.
But in the case of Penn State, the NCAA used the Freeh report -- commissioned by the school's board of trustees -- instead of its own investigation.
"We cannot look to NCAA history to determine how to handle circumstances so disturbing, shocking and disappointing," Emmert said in the statement. "As the individuals charged with governing college sports, we have a responsibility to act. These events should serve as a call to every single school and athletics department to take an honest look at its campus environment and eradicate the 'sports are king' mindset that can so dramatically cloud the judgment of educators."
A former Committee on Infractions chairman and current Division I Appeals Committee member told ESPN. com's Andy Katz on Sunday the NCAA's penalizing of an institution and program for immoral and criminal behavior also breaks new ground.
The former chair, who has been involved with the NCAA for nearly three decades, said he couldn't use his name on the record because the case could come before him and the committee he still serves on in an appeals process.
"This is unique and this kind of power has never been tested or tried," the former chair said. "It's unprecedented to have this extensive power. This has nothing to do with the purpose of the infractions process. Nevertheless, somehow (the NCAA president and executive board) have taken it on themselves to be a commissioner and to penalize a school for improper conduct."
The chair said that the NCAA was dealing with a case that is outside the traditional rules or violations. He said this case does not fall within the basic fundamental purpose of NCAA regulations.
"The purpose of the NCAA is to keep a level playing field among schools and to make sure they use proper methods through scholarships and et cetera," the chair said. "This is not a case that would normally go through the process. It has nothing to do with a level playing field. It has nothing to do with whether Penn State gets advantages over other schools in recruiting or in the number of coaches or things that we normally deal with."
The NCAA, the chair said, had never gotten involved in punishing schools for criminal behavior.
"The criminal courts are perfectly capable of handling these situations," the former chair said. "This is a new phase and a new thing. They are getting into bad behavior that are somehow connected to those who work in the athletic department.
"This is an important precedent. And it should be taken with extreme care."
The NCAA, heavily criticized for its sometimes-ponderous pace in deciding penalties as scandals mounted at Ohio State, Auburn, USC and elsewhere, acted with unprecedented swiftness in arriving at the sanctions for a team that is trying to start over with a new coach and a new outlook.
Emmert had put the Penn State matter on the fast track. Other cases that were strictly about violating the NCAA rulebook have dragged on for months and even years. There was no sign that the infractions committee so familiar to college sports fans was involved this time around as Emmert moved quickly, no doubt aided by the July 12 release of the report by Freeh and what it said about Paterno and the rest of the Penn State leadership.
The investigation focused partly on university officials' decision not to go to child-welfare authorities in 2001 after a coaching assistant told Paterno that he had seen Sandusky sexually abusing a boy in the locker room showers. Penn State officials already knew about a previous allegation against Sandusky by that time, from 1998.
The leaders, the report said, "repeatedly concealed critical facts relating to Sandusky's child abuse from authorities, the university's board of trustees, the Penn State community and the public at large."
Sandusky is awaiting sentencing after being convicted last month of sexually abusing 10 boys over 15 years.
In a cell phone conversation on Monday afternoon, Sandusky's attorney Joe Amendola told ESPN legal analyst Roger Cossack, that Amendola "is disappointed that the NCAA has taken such harsh action before a full and complete legal investigation has occurred."
Amendola, who has yet to speak to Sandusky in reaction to the NCAA sanctions, told Cossack he "is also disappointed in the Penn State Board of Trustees agreeing to a consent decree based on allegations which are currently unsubstantiated involving Joe Paterno and other Penn State administrators."
Emmert had warned Penn State last fall that the NCAA would be examining the "exercise of institutional control" within the athletic department, and said it was clear that "deceitful and dishonest behavior" could be considered a violation of ethics rules. So, too, could a failure to exhibit moral values or adhere to ethics guidelines.
The Freeh report also said that Penn State had "decentralized and uneven" oversight of compliance issues -- laws, regulations, policies and procedures -- as required by the NCAA.
Recent major scandals, such as improper payments to the family of Heisman Trophy winner Reggie Bush while he was at Southern California, and players at Ohio State trading memorabilia for cash and tattoos, have resulted in bowl bans and the loss of scholarships.
Under NCAA rules covering postseason bans, players are allowed to transfer without sitting out a season as long as their remaining eligibility is shorter than or equal to the length of the ban.
Information from ESPN. com senior writers Andy Katz and Mark Schlabach, ESPN's Joe Schad, and The Associated Press was used in this report.
Online dating service
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Online dating ( OD ) or Internet dating is a personal introductory system whereby individuals can find and contact each other over the Internet to arrange a date. usually with the objective of developing a personal, romantic, or sexual relationship. Online dating services usually provide unmoderated matchmaking over the Internet. through the use of personal computers or cell phones. Users of an online dating service would usually provide personal information, to enable them to search the service provider's database for other individuals. Members use criteria other members set, such as age range, gender and location.
Online dating sites use market metaphors to match people. Match Metaphors are conceptual frameworks that allow individuals to make sense of new concepts by drawing upon familiar experiences and frame-works. This metaphor of the marketplace – a place where people go to “shop” for potential romantic partners and to “sell” themselves in hopes of creating a successful romantic relationship – is highlighted by the layout and functionality of online dating websites. The marketplace metaphor may also resonate with participants’ conceptual orientation towards the process of? nding a romantic partner. [ 1 ] Most sites allow members to upload photos or videos of themselves and browse the photos and videos of others. Sites may offer additional services, such as webcasts. online chat. telephone chat (VOIP ), and message boards. Some sites provide free registration, but may offer services which require a monthly fee. Other sites depend on advertising for their revenue. Some sites such as OKCupid, Plenty of Fish and Badoo are free and offer additional paid services in a freemium revenue model. [ 2 ]
Some sites are broad-based, with members coming from a variety of backgrounds looking for different types of relationships. Other sites are more specific, based on the type of members, interests, location, or relationship desired. A 2005 study of data collected by the Pew Internet & American Life Project found that individuals are more likely to use an online dating service if they use the internet for a greater amount of tasks and less likely to use such a service if they are trusting of others. [ 3 ]
Radiocarbon dating
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Radiocarbon dating is a method of determining the age of an object by using the properties of radiocarbon. a radioactive isotope of carbon. The method was invented by Willard Libby in the late 1940s and soon became a standard tool for archaeologists. It depends on the fact that radiocarbon, often abbreviated as 14
C. is constantly being created in the atmosphere by the interaction of cosmic rays with atmospheric nitrogen. The resulting radiocarbon combines with atmospheric oxygen to form radioactive carbon dioxide. This is then incorporated into plants by photosynthesis. and animals acquire 14
C by eating the plants. When the animal or plant dies, it stops exchanging carbon with its environment, and from that point the amount of 14
C it contains begins to reduce as the 14
C undergoes radioactive decay. Measuring the amount of 14
C in a sample from a dead plant or animal such as piece of old wood or a fragment of bone provides information that can be used to calculate when the animal or plant died. The oldest dates that can be reliably measured by radiocarbon dating are around 50,000 years ago, though special preparation methods occasionally permit dating of older samples.
While the idea behind radiocarbon dating is straightforward, years of additional work were required to develop the technique to the point where accurate dates could be obtained. Research has been going on since the 1960s to determine what the proportion of 14
C in the atmosphere has been over the past fifty thousand years. The resulting data, in the form of a calibration curve, is now used to convert a given measurement of radiocarbon in a sample into an estimate of the sample's actual calendar age. In addition to this curve, other corrections must be made to account for different proportions of 14
C in different types of organism (fractionation) and different 14
C levels in different parts of the biosphere (reservoir effects).
Measurement of radiocarbon was originally done by beta-counting devices, so called because they counted the amount of beta radiation emitted by decaying 14
C atoms in a sample. More recently, accelerator mass spectrometry has become the method of choice; it can be used with much smaller samples (as small as individual plant seeds), and gives results much more quickly.
The development of radiocarbon dating has had a profound impact on archaeology. In addition to permitting more accurate dating within archaeological sites than did methods previously in use, it also allows comparison of dates of events across great distances. Histories of archaeology often refer to the early impact of the new method as the “radiocarbon revolution”. Occasionally, the method is used for items of popular interest such as the Shroud of Turin. which is claimed to show an image of the body of Jesus Christ. A sample of linen from the shroud was tested in 1988 and found to date from the 1200s or 1300s, casting doubt on its authenticity.
Contents
Background [ edit ]
History [ edit ]
In the early 1930s Willard Libby was a chemistry student at the University of Berkeley. receiving his Ph. D. in 1933. He remained there as an instructor until the end of the decade. In 1939 the Radiation Laboratory at Berkeley began experiments to determine if any of the elements common in organic matter had isotopes with half-lives long enough to be of value in biomedical research. It was soon discovered that 14
C 's half-life was far longer than had been previously thought, and in 1940 this was followed by proof that the interaction of slow neutrons with 14
N was the main pathway by which 14
C was created. It had previously been thought 14
C would be more likely to be created by deuterons interacting with 13
C. At about this time Libby read a paper by W. E. Danforth and S. A. Korff, published in 1939, which predicted the creation of 14
C in the atmosphere by neutrons from cosmic rays which had been slowed down by collisions with molecules of atmospheric gas. It was this paper that first gave Libby the idea that radiocarbon dating might be possible. [ 1 ]
In 1945, Libby moved to the University of Chicago. He published a paper in 1946 in which he proposed that the carbon in living matter might include 14
C as well as non-radioactive carbon. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] Libby and several collaborators proceeded to experiment with methane collected from sewage works in Baltimore, and after isotopically enriching their samples they were able to demonstrate that they contained radioactive 14
C. By contrast, methane created from petroleum had no radiocarbon activity. The results were summarized in a paper in Science in 1947, and the authors commented that their results implied it would be possible to date materials containing carbon of organic origin. [ 2 ] [ 4 ]
Libby and James Arnold proceeded to experiment with samples of wood of known age. For example, two wood samples taken from the tombs of two Egyptian kings, Zoser and Sneferu. independently dated to 2625 BC plus or minus 75 years, were dated by radiocarbon measurement to an average of 2800 BC plus or minus 250 years. These results were published in Science in 1949. [ 5 ] [ 6 ] In 1960, Libby was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for this work. [ 2 ]
Physical and chemical details [ edit ]
In nature, carbon exists as two stable, nonradioactive isotopes. carbon-12 ( 12
C ), and a radioactive isotope, carbon-14 ( 14
C ), also known as "radiocarbon". The half-life of 14
C (the time it takes for half of a given amount of 14
C to decay ) is about 5,730 years, so its concentration in the atmosphere might be expected to reduce over thousands of years. However, 14
C is constantly being produced in the lower stratosphere and upper troposphere by cosmic rays. which generate neutrons that in turn create 14
C when they strike nitrogen-14 ( 14
N ) atoms. [ 2 ] The 14
C creation process is described by the following nuclear reaction :
Once produced, the 14
C quickly combines with the oxygen in the atmosphere to form carbon dioxide ( CO
2 ). Carbon dioxide produced in this way diffuses in the atmosphere, is dissolved in the ocean, and is taken up by plants via photosynthesis. Animals eat the plants, and ultimately the radiocarbon is distributed throughout the biosphere. The ratio of 14
Principles [ edit ]
During its life, a plant or animal is exchanging carbon with its surroundings, so the carbon it contains will have the same proportion of 14
C as the biosphere and the carbon exchange reservoir. Once it dies, it ceases to acquire 14
C. but the 14
C within its biological material at that time will continue to decay, and so the ratio of 14
C to 12
C in its remains will gradually reduce. Because 14
C decays at a known rate, the proportion of radiocarbon can be used to determine how long it has been since a given sample stopped exchanging carbon—the older the sample, the less 14
C will be left. [ 8 ]
The equation governing the decay of a radioactive isotope is: [ 2 ]
where N 0 is the number of atoms of the isotope in the original sample (at time t = 0, when the organism from which the sample was taken died), and N is the number of atoms left after time t . [ 2 ] ? is a constant that depends on the particular isotope; for a given isotope it is equal to the reciprocal of the mean-life — i. e. the average or expected time a given atom will survive before undergoing radioactive decay. [ 2 ] The mean-life, denoted by ? . of 14
C is 8,267 years, so the equation above can be rewritten as: [ 11 ]
The sample is assumed to have originally had the same 14
C / 12
C ratio as the ratio in the biosphere, and since the size of the sample is known, the total number of atoms in the sample can be calculated, yielding N 0 . the number of 14
C atoms in the original sample. Measurement of N . the number of 14
C atoms currently in the sample, allows the calculation of t . the age of the sample, using the equation above. [ 8 ]
The half-life of a radioactive isotope (the time it takes for half of the sample to decay, usually denoted by t 1/2 ) is a more familiar concept than the mean-life, so although the equations above are expressed in terms of the mean-life, it is more usual to quote the value of 14
C 's half-life than its mean-life. [ note 1 ] The currently accepted value for the half-life of 14
C is 5,730 years. [ 2 ] This means that after 5,730 years, only half of the initial 14
C will have remained; a quarter will have remained after 11,460 years; an eighth after 17,190 years; and so on.
The above calculations make several assumptions, such as that the level of 14
C in the biosphere has remained constant over time. [ 2 ] In fact, the level of 14
C in the biosphere has varied significantly and as a result the values provided by the equation above have to be corrected by using data from other sources in the form of a calibration curve, which is described in more detail below. [ 12 ] For over a decade after Libby's initial work, the accepted value of the half-life for 14
C was 5,568 years; this was improved in the early 1960s to 5,730 years, which meant that many calculated dates in published papers were now incorrect (the error is about 3%). However, it is possible to incorporate a correction for the half-life value into the calibration curve, and so it has become standard practice to quote measured radiocarbon dates in "radiocarbon years", meaning that the dates are calculated using Libby's half-life value and have not been calibrated. [ 13 ] [ note 2 ] This approach has the advantage of maintaining consistency with the early papers, and also avoids the risk of a double correction for the Libby half-life value. [ 15 ]
Carbon exchange reservoir [ edit ]
Simplified version of the carbon exchange reservoir, showing proportions of carbon and relative activity of the 14
The different elements of the carbon exchange reservoir vary in how much carbon they store, and in how long it takes for the 14
C generated by cosmic rays to fully mix with them. [ 2 ] The atmosphere, which is where 14
C is generated, contains about 1.9% of the total carbon in the reservoirs, and the 14
C it contains mixes in less than seven years. [ 16 ] [ 17 ] The ratio of 14
C to 12
C in the atmosphere is taken as the baseline for the other reservoirs: if another reservoir has a lower ratio of 14
C to 12
C. it indicates that the carbon is older and hence that some of the 14
C has decayed. [ 12 ] The ocean surface is an example: it contains 2.4% of the carbon in the exchange reservoir, [ 16 ] but there is only about 95% as much 14
C as would be expected if the ratio were the same as in the atmosphere. [ 2 ] The time it takes for carbon from the atmosphere to mix with the surface ocean is only a few years, [ 18 ] but the surface waters also receive water from the deep ocean, which has over 90% of the carbon in the reservoir. [ 12 ] Water in the deep ocean takes about 1,000 years to circulate back through surface waters, and so the surface waters contain a combination of older water, with depleted 14
C. and water recently at the surface, with 14
C in equilibrium with the atmosphere. [ 12 ]
Creatures living at the ocean surface have the same 14
C ratios as the water they live in, and as a result of the reduced 14
C / 12
C ratio, the radiocarbon age of marine life is typically about 400 years. [ 19 ] [ note 4 ] Organisms on land, however, are in closer equilibrium with the atmosphere and have the same 14
C / 12
C ratio as the atmosphere. [ 2 ] These organisms contain about 1.3% of the carbon in the reservoir; sea organisms have a mass of less than 1% of those on land and are not shown on the diagram. [ 16 ] Accumulated dead organic matter, of both plants and animals, exceeds the mass of the biosphere by a factor of nearly 3, and since this matter is no longer exchanging carbon with its environment, it has a 14
C / 12
Dating considerations [ edit ]
The variation in the 14
C / 12
C ratio in different parts of the carbon exchange reservoir means that a straightforward calculation of the age of a sample based on the amount of 14
C it contains will often give an incorrect result. There are several other possible sources of error that need to be considered. The errors are of four general types:
variations in the 14
C / 12
C ratio in the atmosphere, both geographically and over time;
isotopic fractionation;
variations in the 14
C / 12
C ratio in different parts of the reservoir;
contamination.
Atmospheric variation [ edit ]
In the early years of using the technique, it was understood that it depended on the atmospheric 14
C / 12
C ratio having remained the same over the preceding few thousand years. To verify the accuracy of the method, several artefacts that were datable by other techniques were tested; the results of the testing were in reasonable agreement with the true ages of the objects. However, in 1958, Hessel de Vries was able to demonstrate that the 14
C / 12
C ratio had changed over time by testing wood samples of known ages and showing there was a significant deviation from the expected ratio. This discrepancy, often called the de Vries effect, was resolved by the study of tree rings. [ 20 ] [ 21 ] Comparison of overlapping series of tree rings allowed the construction of a continuous sequence of tree-ring data that spanned 8,000 years. [ 20 ] (Since that time the tree-ring data series has been extended to 13,900 years.) [ 22 ] Carbon-dating the wood from the tree rings themselves provided the check needed on the atmospheric 14
C / 12
C ratio: with a sample of known date, and a measurement of the value of N (the number of atoms of 14
C remaining in the sample), the carbon-dating equation allows the calculation of N 0 – the number of atoms of 14
C in the sample at the time the tree ring was formed – and hence the 14
C / 12
C ratio in the atmosphere at that time. [ 20 ] Armed with the results of carbon-dating the tree rings, it became possible to construct calibration curves designed to correct the errors caused by the variation over time in the 14
C / 12
C ratio. [ 23 ] These curves are described in more detail below .
Atmospheric 14
C. New Zealand [ 24 ] and Austria. [ 25 ] The New Zealand curve is representative of the Southern Hemisphere; the Austrian curve is representative of the Northern Hemisphere. Atmospheric nuclear weapon tests almost doubled the concentration of 14
C in the Northern Hemisphere. [ 9 ] The date that the Partial Test Ban Treaty (PTBT) went into effect is marked on the graph.
Coal and oil began to be burned in large quantities during the 1800s. Both coal and oil are sufficiently old that they contain little detectable 14
C and, as a result, the CO
2 released substantially diluted the atmospheric 14
C / 12
C ratio. Dating an object from the early 20th century hence gives an apparent date older than the true date. For the same reason, 14
C concentrations in the neighbourhood of large cities are lower than the atmospheric average. This fossil fuel effect (also known as the Suess effect, after Hans Suess. who first reported it in 1955) would only amount to a reduction of 0.2% in 14
C activity if the additional carbon from fossil fuels were distributed throughout the carbon exchange reservoir, but because of the long delay in mixing with the deep ocean, the actual effect is a 3% reduction. [ 20 ] [ 26 ]
A much larger effect comes from above-ground nuclear testing, which released large numbers of neutrons and created 14
C. From about 1950 until 1963, when atmospheric nuclear testing was banned, it is estimated that several tonnes of 14
C were created. If all this extra 14
C had immediately been spread across the entire carbon exchange reservoir, it would have led to an increase in the 14
C / 12
C ratio of only a few per cent, but the immediate effect was to almost double the amount of 14
C in the atmosphere, with the peak level occurring in about 1965. The level has since dropped, as the "bomb carbon" (as it is sometimes called) percolates into the rest of the reservoir. [ 20 ] [ 26 ] [ 27 ]
Isotopic fractionation [ edit ]
Photosynthesis is the primary process by which carbon moves from the atmosphere into living things. In both photosynthetic pathways (C3 and C4 ) 12
C is absorbed slightly more easily than 13
C. which in turn is more easily absorbed than 14
C ratios in plants that differ from the ratios in the atmosphere. This effect is known as isotopic fractionation. [ 28 ] [ 29 ]
To determine the degree of fractionation that takes place in a given plant, the amounts of both 12
C and 13
C isotopes are measured, and the resulting 13
C / 12
C ratio is then compared to a standard ratio known as PDB. [ note 5 ] The 13
C / 12
C ratio is used instead of 14
C / 12
C because the former is much easier to measure, and the latter can be easily derived: the depletion of 13
C relative to 12
C is proportional to the difference in the atomic masses of the two isotopes, so the depletion for 14
C is twice the depletion of 13
C. [ 12 ] The fractionation of 13
C. known as ? 13 C. is calculated as follows: [ 28 ]
where the ‰ sign indicates parts per thousand. [ 28 ] Because the PDB standard contains an unusually high proportion of 13
C. [ note 6 ] most measured ? 13 C values are negative.
Courtney Robertson, Arie Luyendyk Jr. Dating: 'Bachelor' Winner Confirms She's With Emily Maynard's Ex (UPDATE)
Courtney Robertson confirms she's dating "Bachelorette" runner-up Arie Luyendyk Jr.
We saw this one coming.
Courtney Robertson, who ended her engagement to "Bachelor" star Ben Flajnik last month. has officially confirmed that she's dating Emily Maynard's "Bachelorette" runner-up, Arie Luyendyk Jr.
“Yes, I’m dating Arie,” the model tells Life & Style magazine. “We’re enjoying our time together.”
The pair were first spotted kissing at a restaurant in Phoenix on Oct. 11, but Robertson insisted it was a onetime hookup. Still, many were surprised that she would move on from Flajnik so quickly after the pair fell in love on the most controversial season of "The Bachelor" yet.
“I was miserable with Ben; he treated me so badly,” says Robertson, who planned to move to San Francisco to be with the winemaker until he told her, "‘I just turned 30, and I’m not ready."
That's when Robertson found comfort in race-car driver Luyendyk Jr. who was left broken-hearted when Maynard chose Jef Holm over him during last season's finale -- Maynard and Holm have since called it quits .
“I didn’t want to jump from one public relationship to another,” Robertson admits, “but Arie and I get along, and I’m not going to let that get away.”
“Arie makes me laugh so hard, and he’s adorable," she raves, "So I'm going with it."
UPDATE: Ben Flajnik has released a statement concerning Robertson's rebound relationship with Luyendyk Jr. “[I’m not dating again], not as quickly as she is. I don’t know what to make of it. The way she handled it wasn’t in the best taste,” he tells Life & Style. "All of my friends were really surprised and disappointed. [Courtney] knew them all. Breaking up was the right move,” he adds. “That [her romance with Luyendyk Jr.] really closed the door behind her.”
As for what he thinks about the race-car driver, Flajnik says, “I thought I knew him. He came up to Sonoma and we hung out for a few days. He seemed like a really nice guy.”
Also on The Huffington Post
The Private Man
Helpful Hint For A Woman’s Online Dating Profile
Since this page is proving so popular I urge you readers to learn about the one-on-one, phone-based dating and attraction advice I offer.
[This post has persistence. With that in mind, here are three other posts that directly addresses some of the dating challenges that women face: A Dating Exercise For Women. the Amazing Follow-up , and A Huge Dating Secret For Women. Enjoy]
I read so many online dating profiles that I get dizzy. The vast majority of women’s online dating profiles are completely and utterly generic: Walks on the beach, shopping, I’m fabulous, I love my dog, no games, family and friends are important. This goes on ad infinitum and ad nauseam. Such generic text does not speak well of a woman’s sense of honest introspection.
Worse, the photos are simply awful. Bad photos tell men that the woman really isn’t making much of an effort. Advice? Professional photographs. I mean that. Who is telling women that men are not visual? Is Oprah or Dr. Phil telling those lies? Someone needs a clue-by-four upside the head.
It’s been said over and over again: Women must bring something to the dating and relationship table if they want something more than just a short-term fling. Women are the gatekeepers of sexuality. The flip side of that is that men are the gatekeepers of commitment. In the long run, men hold the relationship power (most of them just don’t know it).
With this in mind, a good online dating profile must clearly spell out what a woman offers to her potential paramour and candidate for a committed relationship. Here’s another huge mistake that a woman makes – she describes herself in terms of what she wants in a man. This is where the strong and independent fallacy takes shape. A woman wants a strong and independent man so she incorrectly believes that a man wants a strong and independent woman. That is completely wrong. Men want a feminine women but one who is resilient and self-reliant. The feminine attracts the masculine.
As men are rational and logical creatures regarding dating, a woman should specifically state what she offers in terms of what a man actually wants. A list is not the stuff of romance unicorns and rainbows. But a woman must consider her audience. Logic and reason are masculine qualities and a woman must communicate to such an audience with her profile.
I’ll make it easy for the women with an example and format to use. My comments are in brackets. These are only examples. If a woman wants to use this example, she best do a serious inventory of what she offers a man.
Top 10 Reasons Why I Would Be Your Best Girlfriend Ever:
10. You will see me wearing sexy lingerie more than “comfortable” undies. [I think this is fairly obvious.]
9. You won’t hear me nag and complain because I don’t sweat the small stuff. [Men loathe nagging and complaining. It's sandpaper on our eardrums and on our brains.]
8. You will be proud to have me on your arm when we go out in public and your friends will probably be envious. [Dresses, skirts, high heels makeup, and good hair. A man wants to take pride in the woman on his arm.]
7. You will never, ever compete with me. [Men compete with each other, not the woman in his life. competitiveness is a masculine trait.]
6. You will be nicely surprised when I kiss you passionately at unexpected times and in unexpected places. [Affection helps to bond a man to you.]
5. You will never see me roll my eyes at you when you say something because I will respect you. [Men want respect and even small signs of disrespect will drive a man away from you. Try that shit in public and I advise the man to walk away immediately without regret.]
4. You will see my smile far more often than my frown. [Negative feelings are mostly unnecessary drama for men. As the Swedes say about a good woman - she should be happy, horny, and grateful]
3. You will find yourself thinking seriously about my observations on life and current events. [Many men won't well tolerate a woman who only knows shopping and reality TV.]
2. You won’t be holding my purse at the shoe store. You won’t even BE at the shoe store with me. [Do you see that bored chump in the shoe store holding his girl's purse? 'Nuff said.]
1. You rarely, if ever, hear these awful words: “I’m not in the mood”. [Deny sex too often and he will deny or break his commitment. Go ahead ladies, try it. If he still sticks around anyway then you will quickly learn to loathe him.]
Notice how these statements are structured with the personal pronoun “you” leading each one. The emphasis is on the guy, not the gal. An entitlement princess would never write such things. This kind of list should lead the profile to show what the woman offers in the context of dating and relationships.
As for the rest of the profile, that advice will come later. Let’s just say it isn’t a list of demands but a more creative way of expressing a woman’s preferences in a man.
Final Note – Consider the services of a professional dating coach. Seriously, I mean that.
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